Cougars are considered a species of "Least Concern" overall but remain extirpated from much of their historic range, including the eastern United States. Photo credit: NPS (Public Domain)
What should be the central goal of state wildlife agencies?
According
to a December 2023 article and study published in BioScience Magazine,
American constiuents believe a top priority of state wildlife agencies
should be the restoration of locally extinct or imperiled wildlife
species. The BioScience survey presented five actions of state wildlife agencies
and asked the 3589 participants to prioritize the list. These
options included: (1) restoration of locally extinct (extirpated) or endangered
species, (2) increasing recreational hunting/trapping opportunity, (3)
leasing and purchasing more lands for recreational access, (4)
improvement and management of existing wildlife habitat, and (5)
removing exotic and invasive species. In the United States, some
examples of invasive species include feral hogs, northern snakehead
fish, nutria, Burmese pythons, and zebra and quagga mussels. Respondents,
including hunters, heavily favored the restoration option, which was the most popular #1 choice (43%). For all
respondents in the aggregate, the least popular choice was promotion of
hunting/trapping opportunities (7%), while for hunters the least popular
option was increased recreational access.
The idea of rewilding – restoring wildlife to strengthen
habitat resilience and biodiversity - is gaining traction. Beavers, for example, are a keystone species crucial to wetland habitats and help mitigate the impact of drought with their presence. Historic and current conservation efforts have
primarily focused on species-level extinctions.However, geographic range contraction is a frequently overlooked yet
critical aspect of the biodiversity crisis.As the authors state: "Unambiguous legal and ecological reasoning indicates that an adequate interpretation of the legal definition of endangerment includes species that have been extirpated from large portions of their historic range —even if the species is not in danger of global extinction.” (Carlson, et. al, 2023)
This is certainly true of cougars. While cougars are technically listed as a species of “least concern” and still exist in western North America (as well as much of Central and South America where they are locally known as pumas) they historically roamed throughout the continent. Cougars were extirpated in the Midwest and eastern United States in the 1800s, except a lone remnant, known as the endangered Florida Panther. In the Western United States, some regional cougar populations in areas like the Olympic Peninsula and Southern California are imperiled due to habitat fragmentation, leading to genetic isolation and high rates of fatalities from vehicle collisions. Where present, cougars are a keystone species.Since administration of the federal Endangered
Species Act currently does nothing to address range contraction, conservation nonprofits and tribes often take up efforts to save locally threatened cougar populations (such as the Panthera Puma Program, Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe and the Cougar Conservancy). However, the issue of rewilding often falls on state wildlife agencies, presenting an obstacle for the
restoration of native carnivores and other species that are not prioritized by
hunters but ecologically important.
Currently, state agencies not only prioritize consumptive recreational access and use (hunting, fishing and trapping) over wildlife restoration and recovery, but devote most of their resources towards promoting an abundance of game species most favored by hunters and anglers, such as deer, ducks, trout and turkey. Natural predators of game species, like wolves, cougars, and bobcats, are often viewed as "competition" and disfavored at all levels by state wildlife agencies. As Aldo Leopold warned back in 1949, this is not an ecological approach, and overbrowsing by deer has harmful impacts on the biodiversity of eastern forests.
The Bioscience study demonstrates strong
support for restoring species that are extirpated or locally endangered.Constituents
view wildlife restoration as a priority over increased recreational access and
promotion of hunting.This approach means
acknowledging the ecological importance of wildlife (not just utilitarian
benefits to humans) and the critical role a species is unable to fulfill in regions
where they have become locally extinct due to historical persecution, unregulated
hunting, or habitat degradation.In suitable habitat, the restoration of species like wolves, beavers,
bison, and cougars - all listed as feasible candidates for rewilding - would also restore ecosystem functions that have been
lost.Public views towards wildlife and
conservation are continuing to evolve.Americans increasingly favor a more inclusive, ecologically-driven
approach to state wildlife management that looks to the future and engages with
hunters and non-hunters alike.
A wild bobcat pouncing in Marin County, California | Photo credit: Matt Knoth (Shutterstock)
In 2018, a collaborative project led by Colorado State University and supported by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Conservation Grant program surveyed Americans' values regarding wildlife. The survey project, called America's Wildlife Values, categorized four different wildlife value orientations - traditionalist, mutualist, pluralist, and distanced. Traditionalists have a utilitarian view of dominance over nature, and perceive wildlife as a resource to be managed for human benefit. Mutualists perceive wildlife and wild nature as part of our interconnected community, and prioritize compassion and co-existence with wildlife. Pluralists fit somewhere in between, favoring one orientation or the other depending on the situation, and those who are Distanced are generally disinterested in wildlife-related issues. The survey lists state-by-state results for these four categories, and compares them with the values of state wildlife agencies, which tend to be disproportionately slanted towards Traditionalist types. Overall, Mutualists comprise 35% of Americans, followed by Traditionalists at 28%, Pluralists at 21%, and Distanced at 15%. In addition, Mutualist values are also increasing, while Traditionalist values are declining.
In addition to an ongoing increase in Americans who identify as mutualists and a decline in traditionalists, ‘non-consumptive’ recreational activities such as birding, wildlife viewing, and photography are growing in popularity. Today, both urban and rural Americans observe and identify wildlife, providing crowd-sourced geospatial data to citizen science social networks like iNaturalist, which launched in 2008 and has 7.6 million registered users. Panthera director and leading wildcat researcher Dr. Mark Elbroch has noted shifting wildlife values that the current system of wildlife management does not reflect. Bobcats are a prominent example, as charismatic carnivores increasingly contributing to ecotourism and wildlife photography, particularly in northern California and national parks such as Shenandoah and Yellowstone. Additionally, bobcats are recognized as a keystone species important for ecosystem stability.
Regulations under the current system of wildlife management, which permit exploitative, often unlimited annual bobcat hunting and trapping seasons for pelts, trophy mounts, and so-called "predator control" outside protected areas, are out of step with changing wildlife values in our country. However, more and more people are appreciating bobcats alive and in the wild. Wildlife photographers are increasingly enticed by the chance of filming a bobcat in the wild, and treasure the rare encounter with the adaptable yet elusive felines.
“Cultures around the world are changing, and wildlife managers need to think beyond the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation, which prioritizes hunting and trapping constituents over non-consumptive users.”
–Elbroch, L.M., et al. (2017). Contrasting Bobcat Values. BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION, 26(12), 2987-2992.
An
adaptable, successful carnivore, the bobcat is frequently shrouded in
mystery. Bobcats are elusive and skilled at blending into their
surroundings. They are rarely seen for an animal so wide-ranging, yet
those who have observed them have noted the spirit, assurance and
nonchalance
of this animal. Bobcats are confident, focused on the present, and go
about their day with little fear. These observations carry over into
legend and tradition. In Native American lore, the bobcat is often associated with patience, vigilance, clear wisdom in dark places, and the ability to see through masks or facades.
The Algonquin name for the wildcat is Abooksigun. In one legend, an ambitious bobcat's abilities are tested when he tries to hunt down the supernaturally powerful illusionist Mahtigwess, a figure also known as the Great Rabbit.
Persistent to a fault, he pursues his quarry for days, vowing by his
long tail to make the mighty chief of all rabbits his dinner. The wildcat is ferocious and strong, and his favorite food is rabbit. However, the Great Rabbit not only has magic, but also travels in long leaps, leaving very few tracks to follow, and has the ability to sense what others are thinking from a long distance away.
Sensing
the fierce wildcat's determination, Mahtigwess uses magic to
pull a complicated ruse and conjures up an entire mirage - complete with
illusory food, fires, and shelter - whenever the wildcat draws close. However, his pursuer becomes increasingly suspicious of the ruse. With each illusion, Mahtigwess always appears to be human with some vaguely rabbitlike trait. (In a similar version
of the story, the Great Rabbit is disguised as various animals.) When asked if he has seen any rabbits nearby, the powerful trickster tells the wildcat there are thousands of rabbits running around nearby he can catch.
The third
time, Mahtigwess disguises as a human chief with two white feathers and knocks
the bobcat unconscious with a tomahawk, before bounding away with
mile-long leaps as a rabbit. Despite his hunger, thirst, and exhaustion, the
wildcat continues his pursuit after he recovers consciousness. He gains ground and presses his powerful quarry's illusory magic to its
limits.
In a last-ditch effort, Mahtigwess creates a mirage of a ship
captain and crew firing muskets. This time, the terrifying visual and sounds of gunfire seem all too real. The last illusion is what finally frightens the wildcat into fleeing. This
Algonquin story explains the bobcat's short tail, as his quarry proves
too powerful for him to fulfill his vow of making a meal out of the
magical rabbit. Though he has no difficulty catching the normal, smaller rabbits when he is hungry.
Cougars are known for their caching behavior. After a successful hunt, a cougar will eat his or her fill of a deer or elk carcass, then cover the leftovers with branches, tree limbs, or pine needles. In arid deserts where little vegetation is available, soil, debris and rocks are used in their place. The cougar will later return to the leftovers to feed until the deer is fully consumed or decomposed. This behavior not only helps to keep the meat fresh, but serves an important ecological role. Deer caches are also scavenged by a wide variety of other species, from birds of prey to 215 different species of beetles. The decomposing remains of an animal hunted by a cougar deposit nitrogen and carbon into the soil, thus enriching plant communities and benefiting habitat quality over time. One study called this behavior "gardening to hunt" and found that a single cougar over a nine-year period initiated 482 nitrogen-rich spots through caching prey, on average.
The cougar's behavior of caching prey also traditionally benefited indigenous hunters who lived alongside these great cats. The cougar, or mountain lion, was known as Náshdóítsoh in the Navajo language and appears in Navajo creation stories as a protector of one of the four original clans. The passage below describes this relationship:
"In past times when food was scarce, Navajos often found themselves turning to the mountain lion for their very survival. In these times of hardship, Navajos would seek out the remains of mountain lion kills, which the then would feast upon. The Navajos who used this source of meat believed that the mountain lion purposefully made these kills and left them behind for the people to find and use. In such cases, it was proper etiquette to respect the lion's generosity by not taking all of the meat, but rather to leave some behind for later use by the lion. The Navajo term for this meat translates, appropriately I believe, to 'pity portion' - a gift from a fellow being that possesses far greater power, and certainly far greater compassion, than is often shown by its human counterpart.
Today it is the mountain lion who depends on man to ensure its survival. Unlike man, however, the mountain lion does not need pity, but rather needs only our understanding and respect. Throughout their range, mountain lions, like most predators, are under siege - feared and hated by humans who have not taken the time to learn about them, or from them. They are slaughtered by ranchers not for the livestock they kill, but rather for the livestock they might kill. Wildlife departments hunt them down in a mistaken belief that fewer lions will mean more deer and elk for license-buying hunters. They are chased by hounds and shot defenseless out of trees for no other reason than for a sport hunter to prove his supposed manhood. And all the while, we are destroying their habitat and thus forcing these great cats into urban areas where they are then killed in the interest of so-called 'public safety'.
The traditional Navajo-mountain lion relationship is one we can all learn from."
- from The Navajo and the Animal People: Native American Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Ethnozoology by Steve Pavlik, 2014 (p.143)
A bobcat in British Columbia. This Canadian province hosts the northernmost population of bobcats. Photo credit: Tjfelx2
One Native American bobcat story "Keeping Warmth in a Bag" comes from the Dene Tha', also known as the Slavey. In this legend, the bobcat plays a key role as a powerful shapeshifter and swift runner. These First Nations people are indigenous to Canada, and their traditional land is located in what is today part of Alberta, British Columbia, and the Northwest Territories. The traditional Dene Tha' story opens at a gathering of the wild animals. Hunting was difficult, because a long, cold winter had lasted for three years, with no end in sight. All the animals held a council to discuss the cause of this endless cold weather and snow.
"This winter must be especially hard on our sister the bear, who has always hated the cold," someone remarked. Realizing that no bears had been seen in the area for the same length of time, the council decided that a bear was likely involved in the endless winter. Four fierce and powerful animals decided to investigate - a bobcat, wolf, fox and a wolverine. Two strong fish, a pike and dogfish, also joined the search effort. A brave little mouse decided to come along and help however she could. After searching through the lower world, the animals discovered a hole in the sky that led to an upper world above them. This hole was big enough that a bear could have escaped through it. Luckily, the gap was within reach, allowing the animals to enter through.
Within the upper world, the animals immediately noticed the air was much warmer and there was no snow. Likewise, the pike and dogfish noticed there was no ice covering the rivers and lakes. The bobcat, wolverine, fox, wolf, and mouse wandered around on the land, and soon discovered a canoe on the shore of a lake. Nearby, a fire burned outside a hut, and on the inside they found two bear cubs.
The bobcat noticed several large bags hanging from the ceiling. Pointing to one, he asked the bear cubs, "What's in this bag?"
"Our mother keeps rain in this one," the cubs replied. The other animals in turn pointed to different bags, asking what they held. They learned the mother bear was storing the winds and fog inside.
Finally the wolverine questioned the cubs about the last bag in the hut. The cubs hesitated to answer at first, but after some persuasion, they revealed that this one held the warm weather. Knowing the mother bear had stolen the warmth and was hoarding it all to herself, the animals left the hut and secretly discussed how to return the bag. They decided on a cooperative plan.
The little mouse scurried over to the bear's canoe. She gnawed at the handle of the canoe paddle until it was almost completely eaten through. She scampered away. Then the swift bobcat saw the mother bear and raced around to the far shore of the lake. He shapeshifted into a caribou calf, just before the bear noticed him. "Quick, quick children! Help me catch this caribou for dinner!" the mother bear said. The two cubs came scrambling quickly to give chase. But the bobcat was faster and raced ahead of the bears, luring them deep into the forest. In the meantime, the fox, wolverine, and wolf entered the hut, pulled the heavy bag down from its pole and began to drag it off.
Photo credit: Mike Chervinko
The bobcat led the bears back to the lakeshore and jumped in the water. The bear and her cubs kept chasing him - she leapt into her canoe and began paddling furiously after what she thought was a caribou calf. But in the middle of the lake, her mouse-gnawed paddle broke in half. In her surprise, the bear upturned the canoe, and she and her two cubs began swimming across the lake.
Changing back into his true form, the bobcat swam to the shore and rejoined his friends. The bobcat, wolverine, fox, and wolf took turns pulling the heavy bag of warmth back to the hole. Though the bears still pursued, the team was determined to escape back to the lower world. At the last moment, when the bears were close behind and the animals were exhausted from carrying the weight, they passed the bag to the pike and dogfish - who were still fresh and had been waiting. Each one of them made it back through the hole safely to the lower world.
Using sharp teeth or claws, the bobcat and other animals tore open the bag. The heat rushed out, melting the snow and creating a flood. The animals took shelter in the high branches of a tall tree. A great fish drank up the floodwaters, causing them to recede. Summer had finally returned to the world and the balance was restored. In the end, the animals talked with the bear in the lower world and came to an agreement. It was decided that since the bear disliked cold weather so much, she could sleep during the winter instead.
This Dene Tha' story of the shapeshifting bobcat, his friends, and the warmth-hoarding bear is one of many indigenous American legends that speaks to the balance and interconnectedness of the natural world. Because the bear in the story only had her own desires and interests in mind, her actions affected the entire animal community. Cherokee storyteller Gayle Ross noted this theme is prevalent throughout the traditions of many tribes. She stated, "you find those kinds of stories all over, where for one selfish reason
or another, one person tries to control one aspect of the natural forces
and it always succeeds in throwing the entire world out of balance."
Wolverines are highly dependent on the climate and snowpack conditions of their habitat
All species depend on each other in some way, and changing habitat conditions or losing one species affects the entire community. Wolverines require deep winter snow to dig their dens, thus are dependent on local climate, and are considered an excellent indicator of the health of northern ecosystems. Gray wolves are often referred to as a keystone species, playing an important ecological role in maintaining a balance and keeping elk herds on the move, preventing overbrowsing.
From experience, indigenous cultures know of the interconnected nature of the natural world. Jason Baldes, an Eastern Shoshone tribal member, noted in an article on cougars, deer, and CWD: “In Western thought, we silo everything and think it should be broken down in pieces. But when you look at it whole, it’s not siloed. It’s one system together.” In contrast to the Eastern Shoshone - who traditionally don't hunt cougars on their land - the state of Wyoming allows cougar hunting statewide, with the objective of keeping the population artificially low in many areas (known as "population sinks"), due to low perceived tolerance for cougars and to maximize ungulate hunting opportunity. While the factors are deeply complex, the prevalence and spread of
Chronic Wasting Disease in the state's mule deer herds may at least
partially be a consequence of this policy. This year, when mule deer herds in parts of western Wyoming declined due to an unusually severe winter, the state wildlife agency decided to dramatically increase cougar kill quotas even further. For another example, the Ojibwe of northern Wisconsin view wolves as their relatives.
However, Wisconsin has a law requiring a wolf hunt if wolves are
delisted, with the goal of keeping their population at a particular
level, which directly clashes with the values of the tribes and a large number of Wisconsin residents.
According to Michigan wolf and moose researcher John Vucetich, “the interests of recreational hunters sometimes conflict with conservation principles. For example, wildlife management conducted in the interest of hunters can lead to an overabundance of animals that people like to hunt, such as deer, and the extermination of predators that also provide a vital balance to the ecosystem." While hunting has long been a way of life and subsistence for Native Americans, this western model stands in sharp contrast to the indigenous views of conservation and land management practices. One critique agrees that "Unlike Western science, which tends to break things down into its component parts and investigate them independently from one another, Native American scientific traditions underscore the relationality of the world and its inhabitants. This provides a broader perspective on how different beings can be affected by different decisions."
We would do well to remember that the natural world is a complex, interconnected system. When we manipulate one aspect to suit our own desires - like a bear hoarding the warm weather - it affects everyone.
Following part one, which gave an overview of potential habitat, social tolerance and climate factors in the western states, we take a closer look at specific states mentioned within the presentation. According to Brent Lyles, "places with plenty of uninterrupted terrain and abundant prey got high marks while places with low mating prospects and irrational regulations for cougar management got low marks". Cougars are highly adaptable animals. As long as they have connectivity of travel routes and available prey, they can live in a variety of environments ranging from the deserts of Arizona to the swamps of Florida, to the snowy conifer forests of British Columbia. You can watch the video here.
The Worst States - Utah, Texas and Idaho
Cougar in Zion National Park, Utah
In terms of habitat, Utah (mentioned at 5:54) should be an ideal place for cougars to live - plenty of mountainous habitat, booming elk numbers, and a nonprofit organization - Utah Mountain Lion Conservation. Yet a recent law that went into effect solidifies this state as having some of the worst regulations for this species. As of May 2023, Utah currently allows unlimited year-round cougar hunting and trapping - a move strongly opposed by wildlife conservation groups and cougar hunters alike. While cougars are still classified as a big game species, there are almost no restrictions on hunting them outside the boundaries of Utah's national parks. Despite this drastic change, Utah's prior cougar hunting regulations were already excessive, with a record high 702 kills reported during the 2020-21 season. In response to an ongoing drought that caused a decline in mule deer populations, the state then ramped up the pressure by authorizing unlimited year-round cougar hunting in 33 of 54 hunting units for the 2021-22 season, rather than putting a temporary moratorium on mule deer hunting.
Because Texas(mentioned at 6:29) offers zero protection or monitoring whatsoever, breeding populations are effectively limited to the Trans-Pecos region in the southwest area of the state. This area of Texas includes the Big Bend and Guadalupe Mountains National Parks, which together cover a protected area of 3,592 sq km and are surrounded by privately owned ranches. These ranches are known to be hostile to predators - a study of 16 radio-collared cougars in Big Bend National Park resulted in all of them being shot or trapped on surrounding ranchland outside the park. Cougars are considered a 'non-game' species with no regulations or legal protection - even for spotted kittens - and can be trapped and shot within the state year-round with no limits. The survival of this species in the state remains precarious. In 2021, a movement called Texans for Mountain Lions was started, advocating for laws and regulations to be implemented. This advocacy coalition faces an uphill battle, as the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department denied a 2022 petition to conduct research and set regulations for the management of cougars.
Idaho (mentioned briefly at 15:59) is another state that is particularly deadly for cougars. This state is infamous for its brutal management of gray wolves, but cougars don't fare much better. Since 2021, there have been no hunting limits, and prior to that quotas were only set for female cougars, with no limits on the number of males that could be killed. In addition to an excessive 10-month long, unlimited cougar hunting season, the state is particularly unforgiving for cougars that venture into proximity to people, even in the absence of conflict. In the name of "public safety", Idaho Fish and Game policy results in the trapping and killing of even young cubs found seeking shelter under decks and human residences, because they consider cougars found in these places to be habituated and a safety threat. It's important to note that these laws are created by people and driven by cultural goals and social tolerance (and often fear and misinformation). It should also be mentioned that the states on the eastern edge of the cougar's range, the Dakotas and Nebraska (16:06), allow hunting seasons with the goal of suppressing the numbers of the big cats - despite having limited habitat and very small cougar populations. Heavily hunted populations are less stable and skew much younger, with few cougars living long enough to establish territories. South Dakota's 2023 hunt has included the "harvest" of multiple kittens younger than 6 months of age, with one being only 3 months old.
The Best States - California, Washington and Oregon
Female cougar with the Los Angeles skyline in the background
California (mentioned at 13:23) not only scores high in potential habitat, but has, by far, the most progressive and science-based policies regarding cougars. The big cats are found throughout the forest, chaparral, and mountainous regions of the state. People in major urban areas have even found a way to live alongside these animals, the most famous example being P-22, who lived in Los Angeles' Griffith Park largely without incident. Following the end of his 12-to-13-year lifespan, he was honored in a ceremonial tribal burial by local Native Americans, who consider cougars sacred. Cougars are protected from hunting in California and have been since 1972, following a moratorium signed by governor Ronald Reagan - and later re-classified from a game species to a specially protected animal in 1990. In addition, the state has other strong protections in place, and many cougar coexistence and conservation organizations. California is a great place for cougars to live, with plenty of dedicated people working alongside ranchers and landowners, and prioritizing a responsive, non-lethal approach to conflicts.
Connectivity is the main conservation challenge for these animals in California. Cougars are found throughout the state, except the agricultural Central Valley region (the flat, watershed terrain is unsuitable habitat for cougars - though perfect for growing crops) and some areas of the arid southeastern deserts. The survival of some localized populations, particularly in the Los Angeles area, is threatened due to high rates of vehicle strikes and genetic isolation, so improving habitat connectivity through wildlife crossings is a conservation priority. A major freeway (Highway 101) separates the struggling Santa Monica cougar population from the larger cougar population to the north, while Los Angeles urban area lies to the west. That's why the building of a major wildlife corridor at Liberty Canyon is underway. Once completed, these cougars will no longer be isolated and can disperse to and from the north without being struck by vehicles. On the other side of the freeway, the nearby Santa Susana Mountains, Angeles National Forest, and Los Padres National Forest have large areas of good cougar habitat.
Maps showing Highway 101 and cougar habitat in the Los Angeles area
All western states allow some level of cougar hunting, with the exception of California. Despite the presence of a cougar-killing sheriff in Klickitat County,Washington (11:00) has some positives going for it. With forest cover on over half its land, this state has plenty of suitable habitat for cougars. Cougars are distributed throughout Washington, except for most of the southeastern Columbia Plateau region. While Washington currently allows more cougar hunting than conservationists recommend - and quotas vary from place to place within the state - it does have tighter restrictions, such as on the use of hounds. There is a recent trend towards more science-based, inclusive wildlife management in the state. The Olympic Peninsula is the site of Panthera's ongoing cougar research and conservation project, which is a collaboration between cougar scientists such as Mark Elbroch, and Native Americans in the Lower Elwha Klallam Tribe. Because cougars on the Olympic Peninsula are isolated from mainland populations, genetic diversity is lower, so a major objective of the Olympic Cougar Project is identifying blocked areas and improving habitat connectivity. The placement of wildlife crossings in strategic areas benefits not only cougars, but all species of wildlife by providing a safe bridge, overpass or underpass to cross long stretches of water or a major highway.
A cougar in central Oregon. Photo by Jon Nelson
The other state to restrict hounding is Oregon (briefly mentioned at 16:37) which was also deemed "not too bad". While hunting quotas are high and the state is likely overestimating its cougar population, Oregon has a higher percentage (82%) of suitable cougar habitat than any other state, as well as high numbers of elk. There is room for improvement. Oregon's cougar management plan has been criticized for downplaying the cougar's critical ecological role and overemphasizing the big cats' economic impact on livestock damage and hunting opportunity. However, one particular bright spot is Benton County, which has a progressive and non-lethal model for wildlife coexistence. The Benton County Agriculture and Wildlife Protection Program provides funding and resources that proactively help prevent and mitigate conflicts with predators like cougars, including secure sheep pens and livestock guardian dogs. A member of the Panthera Puma Program is one of the advisors. The program began in June 2017, and its success can provide a blueprint for wildlife coexistence in other areas.
Washington cougar
If I was searching for the ideal place to live as a cougar, the mountains of northern California would be at the top of my list. However, the objective of the Mountain Lion Foundation's webinar is not merely to point out the best and worst states for cougars, but to inform and equip concerned people on ways to advocate for them and ensure their continued survival across all western states. A discussion on coexistence and a question-and-answer session comprised the second part of the presentation. Topics discussed included sightings in midwestern and eastern states, working together with hunters and ranchers, P-22 as a model of coexistence, the challenges of drought in arid regions, and more.
I previously wrote about a January 2023 Panthera study which revealed the best potential places for cougars in the Eastern United States. In terms of habitat, the top-ranking states that could host cougar populations are probably West Virginia, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and the northern half of the three Upper Midwest states (Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota) as nearly all of the land there meets the qualifications for good, well-connected cougar habitat. Smaller areas of potential cougar habitat were also found within several other Eastern states.
However, habitat suitability is just one factor. In the West, where cougar populations currently exist, some states are definitely better than others for the big cats - not just in terms of habitat, prey, and land connectivity, but also public policy.
That's the subject of this video, hosted by Brent Lyles, excecutive director of the Mountain Lion Foundation, and Gowan Batist, a California sheep rancher who coordinates and fosters cougar coexistence efforts. The video was originally aired on April 19 as part of the organization's Living With Lions webinar series.
What makes an area a good place for cougars?
1. Shelter - Cougars are ambush predators and cannot successfully hunt if there is too little natural cover. Trees, shrubs, large rocks, and rugged terrain are good for shelter, den sites or stalking prey.
2. Food and water - Deer are a cougar's main source of prey. Experienced hunters will also pursue the much larger elk. In certain areas of their range, animals like wild hogs, jackrabbits, porcupines, or bighorn sheep are major food sources for cougars.
3. Connectivity - Cougars have large home ranges and require large areas of uninterrupted terrain. In absence of wildlife overpasses or underpasses, major highways and freeways are potentially deadly to cougars attempting to cross these roads, and isolate or fragment cougar populations.
4. Potential mates - Establishing a population requires the presence of resident male and female cougars in the area. A dispersing male cougar seeks a territory unclaimed by other males that has a female cougar - a potential mate - nearby. Male cougars are more likely to travel long distances east. Females may either settle in a nearby territory adjacent to where they were raised or disperse further out.
5. Safety - The biggest threat to cougar survival is people. Positives in this category include laws offering protection from needless or ruthless killing of cougars, conservation/coexistence programs, wildlife crossings over major roads, and an informed public.
Potential Cougar Habitat By State
A cougar habitat quality ArcGIS model mapped by Kurt Menke analyzed prey availability, ruggedness of terrain, and low human development impact. The model categorized land into five thresholds of cougar habitat value - optimal, good, average, marginal, and non-habitat.
The actual population densities of mountain lions vary by region and are dependent on the habitat quality of the landscape. Areas of optimal habitat - such as the mountain ranges of the Pacific Northwest - can support high densities of cougars because here the big cats require less land and have smaller territories. In marginal habitat - such as arid regions of the Southwest - cougars are spaced further apart.
According to this mapping model, here is the maximum potential cougar habitat in each western state (sum of optimal+good+average land), excluding Texas due to specific circumstances:
1. Montana - 278,902 sq km
2. California - 235,122 sq km
3. New Mexico - 207,429 sq km
4. Oregon - 205,998 sq km
5. Arizona - 205,149 sq km
6. Wyoming - 194,804 sq km
7. Colorado - 171,019 sq km
8. Idaho - 159,844 sq km
9. Nevada - 140,399 sq km
10. Utah - 116,851 sq km
11. Washington - 112,158 sq km
12. South Dakota - 57,240 sq km
13. Nebraska - 44,574 sq km
14. North Dakota - 35,907 sq km
The first eleven states are fully within the current breeding range of the cougar. The maximum habitat percentage for these eleven states ranges from 49% (Nevada) to 82% (Oregon) of all land within the state. South Dakota, Nebraska, and North Dakota are at the edge of the cougar's current range, and breeding populations have only been documented within the westernmost areas of these states.
Persecution and Social Tolerance
Unfortunately, habitat suitability isn’t the only concern - protection from needless killing is a major factor that determines whether cougars can thrive. Historically, from the beginning of European colonization up until 1971, states paid bounties with the goal of eradicating cougars. Up until the 1960s, nearly all the information available on cougars was from government hunters and trappers, or incidental observations. Due to the elusive nature of these animals, myths and misconceptions still persist, even today with far more research available to us.
In North America, wildlife management of cougars and other large carnivores like wolves is largely defined by human tolerance (or lack of tolerance) for these animals or a perceived need to control predators to increase deer and elk populations. This can manifest in high hunting pressure and local policies that mandate lethal responses when a cougar is sighted in a residential area or eats a domestic sheep or goat. Some states, such as California, Washington, Wyoming and Colorado, have policies that allow for hazing or safe relocation of cougars that wander into cities. Others like Montana and Nebraska kill any cougar found in these areas.
As mentioned in the video, many people are under the impression that cougars are protected everywhere. While statewide populations are difficult to estimate, nearly all states with a surviving cougar population allow high levels of recreational hunting, usually for the majority of the year and with the use of hounds to pursue the cougar up a tree. Most states allow any cougar except spotted kittens (or females directly accompanied by spotted kittens) to be hunted. While only two states allow cougar trapping, cougars are frequently caught in traps and snares set for other animals, which often causes severe injury or death. The Cougar Fund, a Wyoming-based advocacy organization, sums it up well with the statement that state wildlife agencies treat cougars as "nothing more than a salable commodity to a minority trophy hunting community."
State-by-State Hunting Pressure
Arizona - 9-month cougar hunting season with yearly quotas or "harvest thresholds" set per hunting zone. For the 2023 season, the total statewide quota was 354, which is 20-30% of the estimated population. Hound hunting is permitted. Arizona does not relocate cougars and mandates the euthanasia of all male cougars found to be in conflict with humans.
California - None. Since 1972, cougars have been protected from hunting with a closed season and were designated as a specially protected animal in 1990.
Colorado - 5-month cougar hunting season with high yearly quotas or "harvest limits" set per hunting zone. Hound hunting is permitted in this state, as are electronic distress calls in some areas.
Idaho - Unlimited cougar hunting season with some regions open 10 months, some for 8 months, and the rest for 7 months. Hound hunting and electronic distress calls are permitted, and hunters can purchase two tags. Idaho is likely the deadliest state for cougars among those that have set hunting seasons, and its policies are additionally deadly to cougars found near residential areas even in absence of conflict.
Montana - 7.5-month cougar hunting season with high yearly quotas (along with female limits) set per hunting zone. Hound hunting is permitted during certain parts of the season. Montana is also one of a number of states to have a zero tolerance policy for cougars that cross town or city lines - killing the animal even in absence of any signs of aggression.
Nebraska - Has a very small, recently re-established cougar population (an estimated 33 total cougars in the Pine Ridge region) yet holds an annual winter hunting season until quotas have been met, in order to “halt growth or moderately reduce the population size”.
Nevada - Year-round cougar hunting season with a statewide annual quota of 247. Hound hunting is allowed and hunters can purchase up to two tags.
New Mexico - Year-round cougar hunting season with high quotas (along with female limits) set per hunting zone. Up until 2019, they were trapped as well. Cougars are also preemptively killed within certain areas to boost declining bighorn sheep populations decimated by drought and disease. Hound hunting is permitted.
North Dakota - Has a very small, recently re-established cougar population (estimated 77 cougars) yet holds a 7-month hunting season with an annual quota of 15 in the western region and an unlimited quota in the majority of the state. Hound hunting is allowed.
Oregon - Year-round cougar hunting season with high quota limits set across five hunting zones, but one of the few states to ban the use of hounds when killing cougars and manages for a minimum population of 3000 cougars.
South Dakota - Has a small, recently re-established cougar population (estimated at 277) yet holds a year-round trophy hunting season until the limit of 60 total cougars or 40 female cougars is reached, which is one of the highest per capita quotas in North America. Hound hunting is allowed.
Texas - Zero protection or monitoring, can be killed at any time with no limits or restrictions.
Utah - A recently passed 2023 law allows year-round, unlimited trophy hunting and trapping of cougars with a general hunting license. Prior to this, Utah had been steadily increasing hunting pressure on cougars due to a drought that caused a decline in the mule deer population.
Washington - 8-month cougar hunting season with varying limits or “harvest guidelines” set per hunting unit (some units have no harvest guidelines). One of the few states to prohibit the use of hounds to hunt cougars.
Wyoming - Manages “source, stable or sink” areas based on perceived social tolerance of cougars. Hound hunting is allowed. Of the 32 hunting units in Wyoming, 3 allow unlimited cougar trophy hunting, six have year-round seasons with quotas, two have 8-month seasons with quotas, and the remaining 21 units have 7-month seasons with varying quotas. Cougar hunting pressure is highest in the northeast and central parts of the state, and lowest in Teton County and the Wind River Valley.
Ecologically, there is no need to hunt cougars. Traditional game animals like deer, elk, moose and rabbits are prey species. That means that if their numbers are not kept in check (either by their natural predators or human hunters) populations will continue to grow until they eventually deplete the vegetation and crash due to starvation. In contrast, top predators like cougars occur at naturally low concentrations and self-regulate their own numbers.
Climate Factors
A bighorn sheep (a species sometimes preyed on by cougars) at South Shore Golf Course near the city of Las Vegas, Nevada. Photo taken by a visitor to the resort.
Cougars are highly adaptable animals, able to live in a variety of habitats. Historically, they had an extremely wide range throughout the western hemisphere that once mirrored that of the deer. Even today, the cougar can be found as far north as British Columbia and as far south as the Patagonia region of Chile. They're not strictly limited to wilderness areas either. Gowan Batist, a sheep rancher who works with the Mountain Lion Foundation, pointed out (around the 30:53 mark in the video) that when landowners are educated on these animals and use non-lethal methods of co-existence, "ranches can really be refugia for all sorts of native species including mountain lions". Unlike some other North American predators like wolverines and Canada lynx (two species that require forest habitat with deep snowpack) they are not dependent on specific conditions to thrive.
However, while cougars are not a climate-sensitive species, climate does affect cougars, albeit in a more indirect way. In dry conditions, especially in arid states such as Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada (41:45), bighorn sheep and deer seek irrigated, well-watered areas where lush green grass and trees can be found. During drought where water is scarce, this often brings the deer and bighorns into human-developed green spaces, such as parks and golf courses. Because cougars follow their prey, drought years can bring cougars in close proximity to humans as well - a dangerous situation for cougars. Areas with negative perceptions of the big cats (such as the idea that they are habituated and extremely dangerous to public safety) are more likely to seek lethal measures, even in absence of conflict.
Other climate conditions can bring cougars closer to humans as well. Severe winters with heavy snowfall can cause cougars to seek shelter in the lower elevations. Wildfires also displace wildlife, including cougars, causing them to cross through residential areas away from the burned areas of land. In these situations, education and awareness rather than fear can make a huge difference in the survival of a cougar.
In part two, we'll look at a few of the worst and best states for cougars covered within the video, as well as some coexistence and advocacy methods that are discussed.
